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First, the 1908 laws did not establish a comprehensive zoning map as the did. New York: Archaeological Institute of America. The Fragmented Metropolis: Los Angeles 1850—1930.
The number of Stage 1 smog alerts in Los Angeles has declined from over 100 per year in the 1970s to almost zero in the new millennium. Zoned schools include Olympic Primary School Kindergarten , 10th Street Elementary School 1-5 , John H. The greatest snowfall recorded in downtown Los Angeles was 2.
Istanbul - Archived from on 14 December 2011.
It is the country's economic, cultural and historic center. Istanbul is a transcontinental city instraddling the which separates and between the and the. Its commercial and historical center lies on the and about a third of its population lives on the. With a total population of around was ist la million residents, Istanbul is one of theranking was ist la the world's and the. The city is the administrative center of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality with. Istanbul is viewed as a bridge between the and. The city's strategic position on the historicrail networks to Europe and the Middle East, and the only sea route between the Black Sea and the have produced a cosmopolitan populace. While was chosen instead as the new Turkish capital after theand the city's name was changed to Istanbul, the city has maintained its prominence in geopolitical and cultural affairs. The population of the city has increased tenfold since the 1950s, as migrants from across have moved in and city limits have expanded to accommodate them. Arts, music, film, and cultural festivals were established towards the end of the 20th century and continue to be hosted by the city today. Infrastructure improvements have produced a complex transportation network in the city. Considered aIstanbul has one of was ist la fastest-growing metropolitan economies in the world. It hosts the headquarters of many Turkish companies and media outlets and accounts for more than a quarter of the country's. Hoping to capitalize on its revitalization and rapid expansion, Istanbul has bid for the five was ist la in twenty years. The name is thought to be derived from a personal name. Ancient Greek tradition refers to a legendary king of that name as the leader of the Greek colonists. Modern scholars have also hypothesized that the name of Byzas was of local or origin and hence predated the Megarean settlement. The use of Constantinople to refer to the city during the Ottoman period from the mid-15th century is now considered politically incorrect, even if not historically inaccurate, by Turks. By the 19th century, the city had acquired other names used by either foreigners or Turks. Europeans used Constantinople to refer to the whole of the city, but used the name —as the Turks also did—to describe the walled peninsula between the and the Sea of Marmara. This reflected its status as the only major city in the vicinity. The importance of Constantinople in the Ottoman world was also reflected by its Ottoman name 'Der Saadet' meaning the 'gate to Prosperity' in Ottoman. An alternative view is that the name evolved directly from the name Constantinople, with the first and third syllables dropped. It is first attested shortly after the conquest, and its invention was ascribed by some contemporary writers to Sultan himself. Some Ottoman sources of the 17th century, such asdescribe it as the common Turkish name of the time; between the late 17th and late 18th centuries, it was also in official use. Nevertheless, the use of the name Constantinople remained common in English into the 20th century, Istanbul became common after Turkey adopted the Latin alphabet in 1928 and urged other countries to use the city's Turkish name. In modernthe name is written as İstanbul, with a dotted İ, as the distinguishes between a. In English the stress is on the first or last syllable, but in Turkish it is on the second syllable tan. A person from the city is an İstanbullu plural: İstanbullularalthough Istanbulite is used in English. History Remains of a Byzantine column found at 'slocated today within the complex. That early settlement, important in the spread of the from the Near East to Europe, lasted for almost a millennium before being inundated was ist la rising water levels. Modern authors have linked it to the Thracian toponym Lygos, mentioned by as an earlier name for the site of Byzantium. The settlers built an adjacent to the Golden Horn on the site of the early Thracian settlements, fueling the nascent city's economy. Five years later, Severus began to rebuild Byzantium, and the city regained—and, by some accounts, surpassed—its previous prosperity. Rise and fall of Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire Created in 1422 bythis is the oldest surviving map of Constantinople. Two months later, he laid out the plans for a new, Christian city to replace Byzantium. As the eastern capital of the empire, the city was named ; most called it Constantinople, a name that persisted into the 20th century. On 11 May 330, Constantinople was proclaimed the was ist la of thewhich was later permanently divided between the two sons of upon his death on 17 January 395, when the city became the capital of the. The establishment of Constantinople served as one of Constantine's most lasting accomplishments, shifting Roman power eastward as the city became a center of Greek culture and Christianity. Numerous churches were built across the city, including the which was built during the reign of and remained the world's largest cathedral for a thousand years. Constantine also undertook a major renovation and expansion of the ; accommodating tens of thousands of spectators, the hippodrome became central to civic life and, in the 5th and 6th centuries, the epicenter of episodes of unrest, including the. Constantinople's location also ensured its existence would stand the test of time; for many centuries, its walls and seafront protected Europe against invaders from the east and the advance of Islam. During most of thethe latter part of the Byzantine era, Constantinople was the largest and wealthiest city on the European continent and at times the largest in the world. The final blow was given by the was ist la of Villardouin and Enrico Dandolo in 1204 during thewhere the City was sacked and pillaged. The city subsequently became the center of thecreated by Catholic crusaders to replace the Orthodox Byzantine Empire. Hagia Sophia was converted to a Catholic church in 1204. The Byzantine Empire was restored, albeit weakened, in 1261. Constantinople's churches, defenses, and basic services were in disrepair, and its population had dwindled to a hundred thousand from half a million during the 8th century. After the reconquest of 1261, however some of the city's monuments were restored, and some, like the two Deisis mosaics in Hagia Sofia and Kariye, were created. Various economic and military policies instituted bysuch as the reduction of military forces, weakened the empire and left it was ist la to attack. In the mid-14th-century, the began a strategy of gradually taking smaller towns and cities, cutting off Constantinople's supply routes and strangling it slowly. Hours later, the sultan rode to the Hagia Sophia and summoned an imam to proclaim theconverting the grand cathedral into an imperial mosque due to the city's refusal to surrender peacefully. He urged the return of those who had fled the city during the siege, and resettled Muslims, Jews, and Christians from other parts of Anatolia. He demanded that five thousand households needed to be transferred to Constantinople by September. However, many people escaped again from the city, and there were several outbreaks of plague, so that in 1459 Mehmet allowed the deported Greeks to come back to the city. He also invited people from all over Europe to his capital, creating a cosmopolitan society that persisted through much of the Ottoman period. Plague continued, however, to be essentially endemic in Constantinople for the rest of the century, as it had been from 1520, with a few years of respite between 1529 and 1533, 1549 and 1552, and from 1567 to 1570; epidemics originating in the West and in the Hejaz and southern Russia. Population growth in Anatolia, however, allowed Constantinople to replace its losses and maintain its population of around 500,000 inhabitants down to 1800. With the transfer of the capital from formerly Adrianople to Constantinople, the new state was declared as the successor and continuation of the Roman Empire. The claimed the status of in 1517, with Constantinople remaining the capital of this for four centuries. The population of Constantinople was 570,000 by the end of the 18th century. A period of rebellion at the start of the 19th century led to the rise of the progressive Sultan and eventually to the period, which produced political reforms and allowed new technology to be introduced to the city. Bridges across the were constructed during this period, and Constantinople was connected to the rest of the European railway network in the 1880s. Modern facilities, such as a water supply network, electricity, telephones, and trams, were gradually introduced to Constantinople over the following decades, although later than to other European cities. The modernization efforts were not enough to forestall the. Two aerial photos showing the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, taken from a German zeppelin on 19 March 1918. Sultan was deposed with the in 1908 and theclosed sincewas reopened 30 years later on 23 July 1908, which marked the beginning of the. A series of wars in the early 20th century, such as the 1911—1912 and the 1912—1913plagued the ailing empire's capital and resulted in thewhich brought the regime of the. A view of Banks Street in the. Completed in 1892, the Ottoman Central Bank headquarters is seen at left. In 1995 the moved towhile numerous Turkish banks have moved to and. The Ottoman Empire joined 1914—1918 on the side of the and was ultimately defeated. As a result of the war and the events in its aftermath, the city's population declined from 450,000 to 240,000 between 1914 and 1927. The was signed on 30 October 1918 and the on 13 November 1918. The was dissolved by the Allies on 11 April 1920 and the Ottoman delegation led by was forced to sign the on 10 August 1920. Following the 1919—1922the in abolished the on 1 November 1922, and the last, was declared. Leaving aboard the on 17 November 1922, he went into exile and died in, on 16 May 1926. The was signed on 24 July 1923, and the ended with the departure of the last forces of the from was ist la city on 4 October 1923. Turkish forces of the Ankara government, commanded by 3rd Corpsentered the city with a ceremony on 6 October 1923, which has been marked as the Liberation Day of Istanbul : İstanbul'un Kurtuluşu and is commemorated every year on its anniversary. On 29 October 1923 the Grand National Assembly of Turkey declared the establishment of the Turkish Republic, with Ankara as its capital. According to historian Philip Mansel: after the departure of the dynasty in 1925, from being the most international city in Europe, Constantinople became one of the most nationalistic. Unlike Vienna, Constantinople turned its back on the past. Even its name was changed. Constantinople was dropped because of its Ottoman and international associations. From 1926 the post office only accepted Istanbul; it appeared more Turkish and was used by most Turks. From the late 1940s and early 1950s, Istanbul underwent great structural change, as new public squares, boulevards, and avenues were constructed throughout the city, sometimes at the expense of historical buildings. The population of Istanbul began to rapidly increase in the 1970s, as people from Anatolia migrated to the city to find employment in the many new factories that were built on the outskirts of the sprawling metropolis. This sudden, sharp rise in the city's population caused a large demand for housing, and many previously outlying villages and forests became engulfed into the of Istanbul. Topography of Istanbul Istanbul is located in north-western within the on a total area of 5,343 square kilometers 2,063 sq mi. Thewhich connects the to thedivides the city into a European, side—comprising the historic and economic centers—and an Asian, side. The city is further divided by thea natural harbor bounding the peninsula where the former Byzantium and Constantinople were founded. The confluence of the Sea of Marmara, the Bosphorus, and the Golden Horn at the heart of present-day Istanbul has deterred attacking forces for thousands of years and remains a prominent feature of the city's landscape. Followingthe historic peninsula is said to be characterized byeach topped by imperial mosques. The easternmost of these hills is the site of Topkapı Palace on the. Rising from the opposite side of the Golden Horn is another, conical hill, where the modern Beyoğlu district is situated. Because of the topography, buildings in Beyoğlu were once constructed with was ist la help of terraced retaining walls, and roads were laid out in the form of steps. The highest point in Istanbul iswith an altitude of 288 meters 945 ft. The northern half of Istanbul has a higher mean elevation compared to the south coast, with locations surpassing 200 meters 660 ftand some coasts with steep cliffs resemblingespecially around the northern end of the Bosphorus, where it opens up to the Black Sea. Istanbul is situated near theclose to the boundary between the and Plates. This fault zone, which runs from northern Anatolia to the Sea of Marmara, has been responsible for several deadly earthquakes throughout the city's history. Among the most devastating of these seismic events was thewhich caused a tsunami that broke over the walls of the city and killed more than 10,000 people. More recently, in 1999, with its epicenter in nearby left 18,000 people dead, including 1,000 people in Istanbul's suburbs. The people of Istanbul remain concerned that an even more catastrophic seismic event may be in the city's near future, as thousands of structures recently built to accommodate Istanbul's rapidly increasing population may not have been constructed properly. Seismologists say the was ist la of a 7. Climate Microclimates of Istanbul according to In theIstanbul has a borderline CsaCfa and Cfbdue to its location in a transitional climatic zone. Since precipitation in summer months ranges from 20 to 65 mm 1 to 3 independing on location, the city cannot be classified as solely Mediterranean or humid subtropical. Due to its size, diverse topography, maritime location and most importantly having a coastline to two different bodies of water to the north and south, Istanbul exhibits. The northern half of the city, as well as the Bosporus coastline, express characteristics of andbecause of humidity from the Black Sea and the relatively high concentration of vegetation. The climate in the populated areas of the city to the south, located on theis warmer, drier and less affected by humidity. The annual precipitation in the northern half can be twice as much Bahçeköy, 1166. There was ist la a significant difference between annual mean temperatures on the north and south coasts as well, Bahçeköy 12. Parts of the province that are away from both seas exhibit considerable continental influences, with much more pronounced night-day and summer-winter temperature differences. In winter some parts of the province average freezing or below at night. Istanbul's persistently high reaches 80 percent most mornings. Because of this, fog is very common, was ist la more so in northern parts of the city and away from the city center. Dense fog disrupts transportation in the region, including on the Bosphorus, and is common during the autumn and winter months when the humidity remains high into the afternoon. The humid conditions and the fog tend to dissipate by midday during the summer months, but the lingering humidity exacerbates the moderately high summer temperatures. During these summer months, high temperatures average around 29 °C 84 °F and rainfall is uncommon; there are only about fifteen days with measurable precipitation between June and August. The summer months also have the highest concentration of thunderstorms. Winter is colder in Istanbul than in most other cities around thewith low temperatures averaging 1—4 °C 34—39 °F. Spring and autumn are mild, but often wet and unpredictable; chilly winds from the was ist la and warm gusts from the south—sometimes in the same day—tend to was ist la fluctuations in temperature. Overall, Istanbul has an annual average of 130 days with significant precipitation, which amounts to 810 millimeters 31. The highest and lowest temperatures ever recorded in the city center on the Marmara coast are 40. The greatest rainfall recorded in a day is 227 millimeters 8. Climate data for Istanbul1929—2017 Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year Record high °C °F 22. Sea level rise is forecast to affect city infrastructure, for example is threatened with flooding. Cityscape A view of from across thewith the in the background. The district, which was named after Sultan : Fatih Sultan Mehmedcorresponds to what was, until the Ottoman conquest in 1453, the whole of the city of today is the capital district and called the historic peninsula of Istanbul on the southern shore of theacross the medieval citadel of on the northern shore. The Genoese fortifications in Galata were largely demolished in the 19th century, leaving only theto make way for the northward expansion of the city. Galata is today a quarter within the Pera district, which forms Istanbul's commercial and entertainment center and includes and. The Bâb-ı Âliwhich became a for the Ottoman government, was originally used to describe the Imperial Gate Bâb-ı Hümâyűn at the outermost courtyard of the ; but after the 18th century, the Sublime Porte or simply Porte began to refer to the gate of the Sadrazamlık Prime Ministry compound in the quarter near Topkapı Palace, where the offices of the and other were located, and where foreign diplomats were received. The former village of is situated within Beşiktaş and gives its name to the on the Bosphorus, near the. Lining both the European and Asian shores of the Bosphorus are the historicluxurious chalet mansions built by Ottoman aristocrats and elites as summer homes. Farther inland, outside the city's inner ring road, are andIstanbul's main business districts. Originally outside the city, residences along the are now homes in some of Istanbul's elite neighborhoods. During the Ottoman period, and were outside the scope of urban Istanbul, serving as tranquil outposts with seaside yalıs and gardens. But in the second half of the 20th century, the Asian side experienced major urban growth; the late development of this part of the city led to better infrastructure and tidier urban planning when compared with most other residential areas in the city. Much of the Asian side of was ist la Bosphorus functions as a suburb of the economic and commercial centers in European Istanbul, accounting for a third of the city's population but only a quarter of its employment. At present, some gecekondu areas are being gradually demolished and replaced by modern mass-housing compounds. Moreover, large scale and projects have been taking place, such as the one in ; some of these projects, like the one inhave faced criticism. The Turkish government also has ambitious plans for an expansion of the city west and northwards on the European side in conjunction with plans for a ; the new parts of the city will include four different settlements with specified urban functions, housing 1. Istanbul does not have a primary urban park, but it has several green areas. Another park,is situated on a hillside adjacent to the in Anatolia, opposite Yıldız Palace in Europe. Along the European side, and close to theiswhich was known as the Kyparades Forest during the Byzantine period. In the Ottoman period, it was first granted to Feridun Ahmed Pasha in the 16th century, before being granted by Sultan to the Gűne Han in the 17th century, hence the name Emirgan. The 47-hectare 120-acre park was later owned by of in the 19th century. Emirgan Park is known for its diversity of plants and an annual festival is held there since 2005. The government's decision to replace with a replica of the Ottoman era which was transformed into the in 1921, before being demolished in 1940 for building Gezi Park sparked a series of covering a wide range of issues. Popular during the summer among Istanbulites isspreading across 5,500 hectares 14,000 acres at the northern edge of the city. The forest originally supplied water to the city and remnants of reservoirs used during Byzantine and Ottoman times survive. Built by sultans andthe 19th-centuryand palaces on the European and Asian shores of the strait were designed by members of the Armenian of Ottoman court architects. Istanbul is primarily known for its Byzantine and Ottoman architecture, but its buildings reflect the various peoples and empires that have previously ruled the city. Examples of Genoese and Roman architecture remain visible in Istanbul alongside their Ottoman counterparts. Nothing of the has survived, but has proved to be more durable. Completed in 1616, the is popularly known as the Blue Mosque due to the blue which adorn its interior. Early followed the classical Roman model of domes and arches, but improved upon these elements, as in the. The oldest surviving Byzantine church in Istanbul—albeit in ruins—is the later converted into the Imrahor Mosquewhich was built in 454. After the recapture of Constantinople in 1261, the Byzantines enlarged two of the most important churches extant, and. The pinnacle of Byzantine architecture, and one of Istanbul's most iconic structures, is the. Topped by a dome 31 meters 102 ft in diameter, the Hagia Sophia stood as the world's largest cathedral for centuries, and was later converted into a was ist la and, as it stands now, a museum. Among the oldest surviving examples of in Istanbul are the and fortresses, which assisted the Ottomans during their siege of the city. Over the next four centuries, the Ottomans made an indelible impression on the skyline of Istanbul, building towering mosques and ornate palaces. The largest palace,includes a diverse array of architectural styles, from inside theto its style. The include, the Blue Mosqueandall of which were built at the peak of the Ottoman Empire, in the 16th and 17th centuries. In the following centuries, and especially after the reforms, Ottoman architecture was supplanted by European styles. An example of which is the imperial. Areas around were filled with grand European embassies and rows of buildings in Neoclassical, and styles, which went was ist la to influence the architecture of a variety of structures in Beyoğlu—including churches, stores, and theaters—and official buildings such as. Administration Istanbul's districts extend far from the city center, along the full length of the Bosphorus with the Black Sea at the top and the Sea of Marmara at the bottom of the map. Since 2004, the municipal boundaries of Istanbul have been coincident with the boundaries of its province. The current city structure can be traced back to the Tanzimat period of reform in was ist la 19th century, before which and imams led the city under the auspices of the. Following the model of French cities, this religious system was replaced by a mayor and a was ist la council composed of representatives of the confessional groups across Istanbul. Beyoğlu was the first area of the city to have its own director and council, with members instead being longtime residents of the neighborhood. Laws enacted after the aimed to expand this structure across the city, imitating the twentybut they were not fully implemented until 1908, when Istanbul was declared a province with nine constituent districts. This system continued beyond the founding of the Turkish Republic, with the province renamed a belediye municipalitybut the municipality was disbanded in 1957. Statue of inthe largest of the to the southeast of Istanbul, which collectively form the district of. Small settlements adjacent to major population centers in Turkey, including Istanbul, were merged into their respective primary cities during the early 1980s, resulting in metropolitan municipalities. The main decision-making body of the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality is the Municipal Council, with members drawn from district councils. The Municipal Council is responsible for citywide issues, including managing the budget, maintaining civic infrastructure, and overseeing museums and major cultural centers. The Municipal Council is advised by the Metropolitan Executive Committee, although the Committee also has limited power to make decisions of its own. All representatives on the Was ist la are appointed by the metropolitan mayor and the Council, with the mayor—or someone of his or her choosing—serving as head. A view of with the 1928 designed by Italian sculptor. District councils are chiefly responsible for waste management and construction projects within their respective districts. They each maintain their own budgets, although the metropolitan mayor reserves the right to review district decisions. One-fifth of all district council members, including the district mayors, also represent their districts in the Municipal Council. All members of the district councils and the Municipal Council, including the metropolitan mayor, are elected to five-year terms. Representing thehas been the since September 28, 2017. With the Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality and Istanbul Province having equivalent jurisdictions, few responsibilities remain for the provincial government. Mirroring the executive committee at the municipal level, the Provincial Executive Committee includes a secretary-general and leaders of departments that advise the Provincial Parliament. The Provincial Administration's duties are largely limited to the building and maintenance of schools, residences, government buildings, and roads, and the promotion of arts, culture, and nature conservation. Demographics People at the of in Istanbul in the 1930s Historical populations Pre-Republic Year Pop. Throughout most of its history, Istanbul has ranked among the largest cities in the world. Constantinople jostled with other major historical cities, such as, and for was ist la position of until the 12th century. It never returned to was ist la the world's largest, but remained from 1500 to 1750, when it was surpassed by. The estimates that the population of was 14,377,019 at the end of 2014, hosting 19 percent of the country's population. Then about 97—98% of the inhabitants of the metropolitan municipality were within city limits, up from 89% in 2007 and 61% in 1980. While the city ranks as the world's -largest city proper, it drops to the place as an urban area and to the place as a metro area because the city limits are roughly equivalent to the agglomeration. Today, it forms one of thealongside. The city's annual population growth of 3. Istanbul experienced especially rapid growth during the second half of the 20th century, with its population increasing tenfold between 1950 and 2000. This growth in population comes, in part, from an expansion of city limits—particularly between 1980 and 1985, when the number of Istanbulites nearly doubled. The remarkable growth was, and still is, largely fueled by migrants from eastern Turkey seeking employment and improved living conditions. The number of residents of Istanbul originating from seven northern and eastern provinces is greater than the populations of their entire respective provinces; and each account for more than half a million residents of Istanbul. Istanbul's foreign population, by comparison, is very small, 42,228 residents in 2007. Only 28 percent of the city's residents are originally from Istanbul. The most densely populated areas tend to lie to the northwest, west, and southwest of the city center, on the European side; the most densely populated district on the Asian side is. Religious and ethnic was ist la Greek population in Istanbul and percentages of the city population 1844—1997. Thetheand the in 1955 contributed to the sharp decrease of the Greek community. Istanbul has been a cosmopolitan city throughout much of its history, but it has become more homogenized since the end of the Ottoman Empire. The vast majority of people across Turkey, and in Istanbul, areand more specifically members of the branch of. Most Sunnis follow the school of Islamic thought, although approximately 10 percent of Sunnis follow the school. The largest non-Sunni Muslim sect, accounting for 4. Mystic movements, likewere officially banned after the establishment of the Turkish Republic, but they still boast numerous followers. The has been designated Ecumenical Patriarch since the sixth century, and has subsequently come to be widely regarded as the leader of the world's 300 million. Since 1601, the Patriarchate has been based in Istanbul's. Into the 19th century, the Christians of Istanbul tended to be either or members of the. The headquarters of the are located in the city. Because of events during the 20th century—including the between Greece and Turkey, aand the —the Greek population, originally centered in andhas decreased substantially. At the start of the 21st century, Istanbul's Greek population numbered 3,000 down from 130,000 in 1923 and 260,000 according to the Ottoman Census of 1910 of 850,000 total. There are today between 50,000 and 90,000down from about 164,000 in 1913 partly due to the Armenian Genocide according to the Ottoman Census. Steps at Banks Street inconstructed by Ottoman-Venetian Jewish bankerc. The largest ethnic minority in Istanbul is the community, originating from eastern and southeastern Turkey. Although the Kurdish presence in the city dates back to the early Ottoman period, the influx of Kurds into the city has accelerated since the beginning of the with the i. About two to three million residents of Istanbul are Kurdish, meaning there are more Kurds in Istanbul than in was ist la other city in the world. There are other significant ethnic minorities as well, the are the main people of an entire district —. The neighborhood of used to be home to a sizable community, first formed after their expulsion was ist la Spain in 1492. In large part due to emigration tothe Jewish population nationwide dropped from 100,000 in 1950 to 18,000 in 2005, with the majority of them living in either Istanbul or İzmir. From the increase in mutual cooperation between Turkey and several African States like Somalia and Djibouti, several young students and workers have been migrating to Istanbul in search of better education and employment opportunities. There is also a small Nigerian, Congolese and Cameroonian and North African community present. Politics Istanbul has voted for the winning party in general elections since 1995. Was ist la parties traditionally find support in older districts with high population densities such as, and. İstanbul has 39 districts, more than any other. Since İstanbul is Turkey's largest city and has usually voted in the same way as the country as a whole, it is largely perceived in Turkish politics that the winning party of an election is essentially decided by İstanbul's electorate. Political parties thus allocate substantial amounts of electoral campaign funds and to winning control of the İstanbul Metropolitan Municipality. Due to its electoral importance, İstanbul has reported the largest and most serious cases of electoral fraud in recent elections, including the. He is currently a for İstanbul. Although Erdoğan won the most votes in İstanbul, his failure to win above 50% was seen as significant. Opposition candidate came second with 41. In 2013 and 2014, began in İstanbul and spread throughout the nation. Economy A panorama of business district, situated on the European side of the city, near. Since the mid-1990s, Istanbul's economy has been one of the fastest-growing among metro-regions. With its high population and significant contribution to the Turkish economy, Istanbul is responsible for two-fifths of the nation's tax revenue. That includes the taxes of 37 billionaires based in Istanbul, the fifth-highest number among cities around the world. A view ofone of the main business districts in Istanbul and home to the city's tallest buildings. As expected for a city of its size, Istanbul has a diverse industrial economy, producing commodities as varied as olive oil, tobacco, vehicles, and electronics. Istanbul is home tothe sole entity of Turkey, which combined the former Istanbul Stock Exchange, the Istanbul Gold Exchange, and the Derivatives Exchange of Turkey. The former was originally established as the Ottoman Stock Exchange in 1866. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Banks Street in Galata was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, where the Ottoman Stock Exchange was located. Bankalar Caddesi continued to be Istanbul's main financial district until the 1990s, when most Turkish banks began moving their headquarters to the modern central business districts of and. In 1995, the Istanbul Stock Exchange now Borsa Istanbul moved to its current building in the quarter of the district. A new is also under construction in and will host the headquarters of various Turkish banks and financial institutions upon completion. As the only route to thethe is one of the busiest waterways in was ist la world. As the only sea route between the oil-rich Black Sea and the Mediterranean, the Bosphorus is one of the busiest waterways in the world; more than 200 million tonnes of oil pass through the strait each year, and the traffic on the Bosphorus is three times that on the. As a result, there have been proposals to build a canal, known asparallel to the strait, on the European side of the city. Istanbul has three major shipping ports—thethe Port of Ambarlı, and the Port of Zeytinburnu—as well as several smaller ports and oil terminals along the Bosphorus and the Sea of Marmara. Haydarpaşa, situated at the southeastern end of the Bosphorus, was Istanbul's largest port until the early 2000s. Shifts in operations to Ambarlı since then have left Haydarpaşa running under capacity and with plans to decommission the port. In 2007, Ambarlı, on the western edge of the urban center, had an annual capacity of 1. The Port of Zeytinburnu is advantaged by its proximity to motorways andand long-term plans for the city call for greater connectivity between all terminals and the road and rail networks. Istanbul is an increasingly popular tourist destination; whereas just 2. Istanbul is Turkey's second-largest international gateway, afterreceiving a quarter of the nation's foreign tourists. Istanbul's tourist industry is concentrated in the European side, with 90 percent of the city's hotels located there. Low- and mid-range hotels tend to be located on the ; higher-end hotels are primarily located in the entertainment and financial centers north of the Golden Horn. The city's environmental master plan also notes that there are 17 palaces, 64 mosques, and 49 churches of historical significance in Istanbul. Culture Thefounded by in 1891, form Turkey's oldest modern museum. Istanbul was historically known as a cultural hub, but its cultural scene stagnated after the Turkish Republic shifted its focus toward. The new national government established programs that served to orient Turks toward musical traditions, especially those originating in Europe, but musical institutions and visits by foreign classical artists were primarily centered in the new capital. Much of Turkey's cultural scene had its roots in Istanbul, and by the 1980s and 1990s Istanbul reemerged globally as a city whose cultural significance is not solely based on its past glory. Despite efforts to make Ankara Turkey's cultural heart, Istanbul had the country's primary institution of art until the 1970s. When additional universities and art journals were founded in Istanbul during the 1980s, artists formerly based in Ankara moved in. Modern art museums, includingtheandopened in the 2000s to complement the exhibition spaces and auction houses that have already contributed to the cosmopolitan nature of the city. These museums have yet to attain the popularity of older museums on the historic peninsula, including thewhich ushered in the era of modern museums in Turkey, and the. The former building ofa museum of contemporary art on theis currently being replaced by a new one designed by Italian architect. The new building is a component of the Was ist la project for the renovation of the. The first film screening in Turkey was at in 1896, a year after the technology publicly debuted in Paris. Movie theaters rapidly cropped up in Beyoğlu, with the greatest concentration of theaters being along the street now known as. Istanbul also became the heart ofalthough Turkish films were not consistently developed until the 1950s. Since then, Istanbul has been the most popular location to film Turkish dramas and comedies. The Turkish film industry ramped up in the second half of the century, and with 2002 and 2005both filmed in Istanbul, the nation's movies began to see substantial international success. Istanbul and its picturesque skyline have also served as a backdrop for several foreign films, including 196319641999and 2008. Coinciding with this cultural reemergence was the establishment of the Istanbul Festival, which began showcasing a variety of art from Turkey and around the world in 1973. From this flagship festival came the and the in the early 1980s. With its focus now solely on music and dance, the Istanbul Festival has been known as the since 1994. The most prominent of the festivals that evolved from the original Istanbul Festival is theheld every two years since 1987. Its was ist la incarnations were aimed at showcasing Turkish visual art, and it has since opened to international artists and risen in prestige to join the elitealongside the and the. Leisure and entertainment The is one of the largest covered markets in the world. Istanbul hasfrom the historic to the modern. Thein operation since 1461, is among the world's oldest and largest covered markets. Since then, malls have become major shopping centers outside the historic peninsula. Many of the city's most popular and upscale seafood restaurants line the shores was ist la the particularly in neighborhoods like, and. The15 kilometers 9 mi from the city center, are also popular for their seafood restaurants. Because of their restaurants, historic summer mansions, and tranquil, car-free streets, the Prince Islands are a popular vacation destination among Istanbulites and foreign tourists. Istanbul is also famous for its sophisticated and elaborately-cooked dishes of the. However, following the influx of immigrants from southeastern and eastern Turkey, which began in the 1960s, the foodscape of the city has drastically changed by the end of the century; with influences of Middle Eastern cuisine such as taking an important place in the food scene. Restaurants featuring foreign cuisines are mainly concentrated in the,and districts. Istanbul is famous for itsas well as its historica signature characteristic of the city for centuries if not millennia. Along is thenow home to winehouses known as meyhanespubs, and restaurants. İstiklal Avenue, originally famous for its taverns, has shifted toward shopping, but the nearby Nevizade Street is still lined with winehouses and pubs. Some other neighborhoods around İstiklal Avenue have recently been revamped to cater to Beyoğlu's nightlife, with formerly commercial streets now lined with pubs, cafes, and restaurants playing live music. Other focal points for Istanbul's nightlife include,and. Sports top bottom Istanbul is home to some of Turkey's oldest. Due to its initial status as Turkey's only club, Beşiktaş occasionally represented the Ottoman Empire and Turkish Republic in international sports competitions, earning the right to place the Turkish flag inside its team logo. Galatasaray and Fenerbahçe have a long-standing rivalry, with Galatasaray based in the European part and Fenerbahçe based in the Anatolian part of the city. Istanbul has seven basketball teams—,, and —that play in the premier-level. Many of Istanbul's sports facilities have been built or upgraded since 2000 to bolster the city's bids for the. The stadium hosted the and will host the. Prior to the completion of the Sinan Erdem Dome in 2010, was Istanbul's primary indoor arena, having hosted the finals of. Several other indoor arenas, including thehave also been inaugurated since 2000, serving as the home courts of Istanbul's sports clubs. The most recent of these is the 13,800-seatwhich opened in 2012 as the home court of Fenerbahçe's basketball teams. Despite the construction boom, five bids for the Summer Olympics—in, and —and national bids for and have ended unsuccessfully. The is one of the major volleyball arenas in the city and hosts clubs such as, and who have won numerous and titles. Between 2005 and 2011, racing circuit hosted the annual. Istanbul Park was also a venue of the and the in 2005 and 2006, but the track has not seen either of these competitions since then. It also hosted the between 2005 and 2007. Istanbul was occasionally a venue of thewith the last race on the Bosphorus strait on 12—13 August 2000. The last race of the on the Bosphorus took place on 19—21 June 2009. Istanbul Sailing Club, established in 1952, hosts races and other sailing events on the waterways in and around Istanbul each year. Turkish Offshore Racing Club also hosts major yacht races, such as the annual Naval Forces Trophy. Media Established in 1948, is one of Turkey's most circulated newspapers. Most state-run radio and television stations are based in Ankara, but Istanbul is the primary hub of Turkish media. The industry has its roots in the former Ottoman capital, where the first Turkish newspaper, Takvim-i Vekayi Calendar of Affairswas published in 1831. The street on which the newspaper was printed, Bâb-ı Âli Street, rapidly became the center of Turkish print media, alongside Beyoğlu across the Golden Horn. Today, Istanbul hosts a wide variety of periodicals. Most nationwide newspapers are based in Istanbul, with simultaneous Ankara and İzmir editions. Hürriyet's English-language edition,has been printed since 1961, but the English-languagefirst published by Sabah in 2014, has overtaken it in circulation. Several smaller newspapers, including popular publications likeand are also based in Istanbul. Istanbul also has long-running newspapers, notably the dailies and and the bilingual weekly in Armenian and Turkish. Offering a range of content from educational programming to coverage of sporting events, Radio 2 is the most popular radio station in Turkey. Istanbul's airwaves are the busiest in Turkey, primarily featuring either Turkish-language or English-language content. One of the exceptions, offering both, is 94. Among Turkey's first private stations, and the first featuring foreign popular music, was Istanbul's 97. Istanbul is home to the headquarters of several Turkish stations and regional headquarters of international media outlets. The has a regional office in Istanbul, assisting its Turkish-language news operations, and the American news channel established the Turkish-language there in 1999. The Istanbul-based business and entertainment channel began broadcasting in 2000. Education Main entrance gate ofthe city's oldest Turkish institution, established in 1453. Although originally anthe university established law, medicine, and science departments in the 19th century and was secularized after the founding of the Turkish Republic. These public universities are two of just eight across the city; other prominent state universities in Istanbul include thewhich served as Turkey's primary institution of art until the 1970s, andthe country's third-largest institution of higher learning. Established in 1863, has been an American boarding school since its higher education section became in 1971. Most established universities in Istanbul are backed by the government; the city also has several prominent private institutions. The first modern private university in Istanbul, also the oldest American school in existence in its original location outside the United States, wasfounded byan American philanthropist, anda missionary devoted to education, in 1863. The tertiary element of its education program became the public in 1971; the remaining portion in Arnavutköy continues as a boarding high-school under the name Robert College. The first private university established in Istanbul since 1982 was founded in 1992and another dozen had opened within the following decade. Today, there are at least 30 private universities in the city, including and. A new and development hub, called Bio Istanbul, is under construction inand will host 15,000 residents, 20,000 working commuters, and a university upon completion. View of 1845-2016 In 2007, there were aboutabout half of which were ; on average, each school had 688 students. In recent years, Istanbul's educational system has expanded substantially; from 2000 to 2007, the number of classrooms and teachers nearly doubled and the number of students increased by more than 60 percent. It was built at the behest of Sultanwho sought to bring students with diverse backgrounds together as a means of strengthening his growing empire. It is one of Turkey'selite public high schools that place a stronger emphasis on instruction in foreign languages. Galatasaray, for example, offers instruction in French; other Anatolian High Schools primarily teach in English or German alongside Turkish. The city also has foreign high schools, such asthat were established in the 19th century to educate foreigners. Both schools were shut provides free education to children across the country missing was ist la least one parent. Darüşşafaka begins instruction with the fourth grade, providing instruction in English and, starting in sixth grade, a second foreign language—German or French. Other prominent high schools in the city include founded in 1884founded in 1908 and founded in 1955. Public services Thenow the art museumwas Istanbul's sole source of power between 1914 and 1952. Istanbul's first systems date back to the city's early history, when such as the deposited the water in the city's numerous. At the behest ofthe Kırkçeşme water supply network was constructed; by 1563, the network provided 4,200 cubic meters 150,000 cu ft of water to 158 sites each day. In later years, in response to increasing public demand, water from various springs was channeled to public fountains, like theby means of supply lines. Thea along the Golden Horn, was the sole source of Istanbul's electricity between 1914, when its first engine room was completed, and 1952. Following the founding of the Turkish Republic, the plant underwent renovations to accommodate the city's increasing demand; its capacity grew from 23 megawatts in 1923 was ist la a peak of 120 megawatts in 1956. Capacity declined until the power station reached the end of its economic life and shut down in 1983. Istanbul's current central post office dates back to 1909. The Ottoman Ministry of Post and Telegraph was established in 1840 and the first post office, the Imperial Post Office, opened near the courtyard of. By 1876, the first international mailing network between Istanbul and the lands beyond the Ottoman Empire had been established. Sultan issued his first official honor for the in 1847, and construction of the first was ist la line—between Istanbul and —finished in time to announce the end of the in 1856. A nascent telephone system began to emerge in Istanbul in 1881 and after the first manual became operational in Istanbul in 1909, the Ministry of Post and Telegraph became the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone. Today, and service is provided by private companies, afterwhich split from the Ministry of Post, Telegraph, and Telephone in 1995, was privatized was ist la 2005. In 2000, Istanbul had 137 hospitals, of which 100 were private. Turkish citizens are entitled to subsidized healthcare in the nation's state-run hospitals. As public hospitals tend to be overcrowded or otherwise slow, private hospitals are preferable for those who can afford them. Their prevalence has increased significantly over the last decade, as the percentage of outpatients using private hospitals increased from 6 percent to 23 percent between 2005 and 2009. Many of these private hospitals, as well as some of the public hospitals, are equipped with high-tech equipment, including machines, or associated with medical research centers. Turkey has more hospitals accredited by the U. The high quality of healthcare, especially in private hospitals, has contributed to a recent upsurge in to Turkey with a 40 percent increase between 2007 and 2008. Laser is particularly common among medical tourists, as Turkey is known for specializing in the procedure. Transportation The is one of three on the strait. Istanbul's primary motorways are the, and. The O-1 forms the city's innertraversing theand the O-2 is the city's outer ring road, crossing the. The O-2 continues west to and the O-4 continues east to Ankara; the O-2, O-3, and O-4 are part of the Trans-European Motorway between Portugal and the Turkish—Iranian border. In 2011, the first and second bridges on the Bosphorus carried 400,000 vehicles each day. The entered service on 26 August 2016. Environmentalist groups worry that the third bridge will endanger the remaining green areas to the north of Istanbul. Apart from the three Bosphorus Bridges, the dual-deck, 14. Istanbul's and systems Istanbul's local public transportation system is a network of, was ist la, buses,and ferries. Fares across modes are integrated, using theintroduced in 2009, or the older electronic ticket device. The opened in 1875 as the world's second-oldest subterranean rail line after London's. It still carries passengers between and İstiklal Avenue along a steep 573-meter 1,880 ft track; a more modern funicular between Taksim Square and began running in 2006. The two sides of Istanbul's metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the tunnel, inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia. With the Marmaray's completion, rail use in the city is expected to increase to 28 percent from 4 percentbehind only and. Until then, buses provide transportation within and between the two halves of the city, accommodating 2. Thea form of bus rapid transit, crosses the Bosphorus Bridge, with dedicated lanes leading to its termini. Istanbul Seabuses runs a combination of all-passenger ferries and car-and-passenger ferries to ports on both sides of the Bosphorus, as far north as the Black Sea. The city's main cruise ship terminal is the in Karaköy, with a capacity of 10,000 passengers per hour. Most visitors enter Istanbul by air, but about half a million foreign tourists enter the city by sea each year. Originally opened in 1873 with a smaller terminal building as the main terminus of the of thewhich connected Istanbul with ; the current building was constructed between 1888 and 1890, and became the eastern terminus of the from. International rail service from Istanbul launched in 1889, with a line between and Istanbul'swhich ultimately became famous as the eastern terminus of the from. Regular service to Bucharest and continued until the early 2010s, when the former was interrupted for Marmaray construction and the latter was halted due to. After Istanbul's opened in 1908, it served as the western terminus of the and an extension of the ; today, neither service is offered directly from Istanbul. Service to Ankara and other points across Turkey is normally offered bybut the construction of Marmaray and the forced the station to close in 2012. New stations to replace both the Haydarpaşa and Sirkeci terminals, and connect the city's disjointed railway networks, are expected to open upon completion of the Marmaray project; until then, Istanbul is without intercity rail service. Private bus companies operate instead. Istanbul's main bus station is the was ist la in Europe, with a daily capacity of 15,000 buses and 600,000 passengers, serving destinations as distant as. Istanbul has two international airports. The larger is24 kilometers 15 mi west of the city center. was ist la Dominated byIstanbul's second airport has rapidly become popular, especially since the opening of a new international terminal in 2009; the airport handled 14. Atatürk has also experienced rapid growth, as its 20. Because of the traffic at Istanbul's current airports, a third international airport is planned for the Black Sea coast. Building a new runway at Atatürk Airport was rejected due to the cost involved; environmental concerns have also been raised with respect to the new airport. Currently under construction, the will become the largest airport in the world upon the completion of all four stages of the project, with a capacity to serve 150 million passengers per year. It also states a 2008 law merged the district into the district a point that is not reflected in the previous source and increased the number of districts in Istanbul to 39. Historians have disputed the precise year the city was founded. The ranges of values between 500 and 1000 are due towhich also does a comprehensive analysis of sources, including Chandler 1987 ; Morris notes that many of Chandler's estimates during that time seem too large for the city's size, and presents smaller estimates. Chandler disagrees with on the population of the city in the mid-1920s with the former suggesting 817,000 in 1925but Turan, p. 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Daliah Lavi - C'est la vie (So ist das Leben) 2008
The Ottoman Empire joined 1914—1918 on the side of the and was ultimately defeated. The two sides of Istanbul's metro are connected under the Bosphorus by the tunnel, inaugurated in 2013 as the first rail connection between Thrace and Anatolia. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Banks Street in Galata was the financial center of the Ottoman Empire, where the Ottoman Stock Exchange was located. The northern half of the city, as well as the Bosporus coastline, express characteristics of and , because of humidity from the Black Sea and the relatively high concentration of vegetation. Archived from on 15 August 2012. Other prominent high schools in the city include founded in 1884 , founded in 1908 and founded in 1955. Osman's Dream: The Story of the Ottoman Empire, 1300—1923. This involves overcast or foggy skies in the morning which yield to sun by early afternoon.
